Half Value Layer indicates the thickness of absorbing material which is needed to reduce the incident radiation intensity by a factor of two.
Half Value Layer for different materials is provided in the below table
What is Half Value Layer
Half Value Layer indicates the thickness of absorbing material which is needed to reduce the incident radiation intensity by a factor of two.
Half Value Layer for different materials is provided in the below table
About INCONEL-600
INCONEL® (nickel-chromium-iron) alloy 600 (UNS N06600/W.Nr. 2.4816) is a standard engineering material for applications which require resistance to corrosion and heat. The alloy also has excellent mechanical properties and presents the desirable combination of high strength and good workability. The limiting chemical composition of INCONEL alloy 600 is shown in Table 1. The high nickel content gives the alloy resistance to corrosion by many organic and inorganic compounds and also makes it virtually immune to chloride-ion stress-corrosion cracking. Chromium confers resistance to sulfur compounds and also provides resistance to oxidizing conditions at high temperatures or in corrosive solutions. The alloy is not precipitation hardenable; it is hardened and
strengthened only by cold work. The versatility of INCONEL alloy 600 has led to its use in a variety of applications involving temperatures from cryogenic to above 2000°F (1095°C). The alloy is used extensively in the chemical industry for its strength and corrosion resistance. Applications include heaters, stills, bubble towers and condensers for processing of fatty acids; evaporator tubes, tube sheets and flaking trays for the manufacture of sodium sulfide; and equipment for handling abietic acid in the manufacture of paper pulp. The alloy's strength and oxidation resistance at high temperatures make it useful for many applications in the heat-treating industry. It is used for retorts, muffles, roller hearths and other furnace components and for heat-treating baskets and trays. In the aeronautical field, INCONEL alloy 600 is used for a variety of engine and airframe components which must withstand high temperatures. Examples are lockwire, exhaust liners and turbine seals. INCONEL alloy 600 is used in the electronic field for such parts as cathode-ray tube spiders, thyratron grids, tube support members and springs.The alloy is a standard material of construction for nuclear reactors. It has excellent resistance to corrosion by high-purity water, and no indication of chloride-ion stress-corrosion cracking in reactor water systems has been detected. For nuclear applications, the alloy is produced to exacting specifications and is designated INCONEL alloy 600T.
strengthened only by cold work. The versatility of INCONEL alloy 600 has led to its use in a variety of applications involving temperatures from cryogenic to above 2000°F (1095°C). The alloy is used extensively in the chemical industry for its strength and corrosion resistance. Applications include heaters, stills, bubble towers and condensers for processing of fatty acids; evaporator tubes, tube sheets and flaking trays for the manufacture of sodium sulfide; and equipment for handling abietic acid in the manufacture of paper pulp. The alloy's strength and oxidation resistance at high temperatures make it useful for many applications in the heat-treating industry. It is used for retorts, muffles, roller hearths and other furnace components and for heat-treating baskets and trays. In the aeronautical field, INCONEL alloy 600 is used for a variety of engine and airframe components which must withstand high temperatures. Examples are lockwire, exhaust liners and turbine seals. INCONEL alloy 600 is used in the electronic field for such parts as cathode-ray tube spiders, thyratron grids, tube support members and springs.The alloy is a standard material of construction for nuclear reactors. It has excellent resistance to corrosion by high-purity water, and no indication of chloride-ion stress-corrosion cracking in reactor water systems has been detected. For nuclear applications, the alloy is produced to exacting specifications and is designated INCONEL alloy 600T.
Courtesy: M/s Special Metals
How long does it take for moonlight to reach the earth?
Light travels through space at just over 186,000 miles per second. The moon is just under 250,000 miles from Earth, so light from the Moon's surface has to travel more than one second (about 1.3 seconds) to reach us.
The astronauts left reflecting mirrors on the moon. By shining a laser beam on those mirrors from Earth, and measuring the time (less than 3 seconds) it takes to see its reflection, the length of the round trip can be easily calculated to within a few inches!
Which planet rotates so fast that its day is only 10 hours long?
Both Jupiter and Saturn have days that last about 10 hours. Jupiter has a period of 0.410 earth days or about 9.84 hours and Saturn has a period of 0.426 earth days or about 10.224 hours.
What is the Astronomical Unit?
When describing distances on the scale of our Solar System, conventional units of measure are not conveniently sized. Miles are too small, and light years are too large, to permit easily compared numbers. For example, the distance between the Sun and Earth is about 93,000,000 miles; between the Sun and Pluto is about 3,700,000,000 miles. Comparing those two numbers, it is not easily seen that Pluto is about 40 times as far from the Sun as Earth is.
The Astronomical Unit (AU) represents a distance of Earth's average distance to the Sun, or about 93,000,000 miles.
How did planet Neptune get its name?
In Roman mythology Neptune was the god of the Sea.
After the discovery of Uranus, it was noticed that its orbit was not as it should be in accordance with Newton's laws. It was therefore predicted that another more distant planet must be perturbing Uranus' orbit. Neptune was first observed by Galle and d'Arrest on 1846 Sept 23 very near to the locations independently predicted by Adams and Le Verrier from calculations based on the observed positions of Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus. An international dispute arose between the English and French (though not, apparently between Adams and Le Verrier personally) over priority and the right to name the new planet; they are now jointly credited with Neptune's discovery. Subsequent observations have shown that the orbits calculated by Adams and Le Verrier diverge from Neptune's actual orbit fairly quickly. Had the search for the planet taken place a few years earlier or later it would not have been found anywhere near the predicted location.
Read more.....
What is the hottest part of Sun?
The center of the sun is the hottest part (at around 15 million Kelvins, or 27 million degrees Fahrenheit). The temperature then drops to 5,800 K (10,000 degrees F) at the visible surface, although the corona (the part just above the surface, where solar flares are), can get much hotter (2 million K, or 3.6 million degrees F).
What is the difference between cathode rays and beta rays?
cathode 'rays' were observed in electrical
experiments because of their fluorescent effect near a negatively charged plate (called the
cathode) in a vacuum. They were only later found to be negatively charged electrons emitted
from negatively charged plates and accelerating toward positively charged ones. (Like
charges repel, unlike charges attract.)
Beta 'rays' were first observed being emitted from certain unstable (radioactive) isotopes, and behaved unlike the alpha and gamma radiation also found in radioactivity. It wasn't until later that both alpha and beta 'radiation' were discovered to actually be particles; only gamma rays consist of true electromagnetic radiation. Beta 'rays' are actually electrons ejected from decaying neutrons, and are now more often referred to as Beta emission or Beta particles.
So electrons can be described differently, not based on WHAT they are but HOW they are created or observed.
Beta 'rays' were first observed being emitted from certain unstable (radioactive) isotopes, and behaved unlike the alpha and gamma radiation also found in radioactivity. It wasn't until later that both alpha and beta 'radiation' were discovered to actually be particles; only gamma rays consist of true electromagnetic radiation. Beta 'rays' are actually electrons ejected from decaying neutrons, and are now more often referred to as Beta emission or Beta particles.
So electrons can be described differently, not based on WHAT they are but HOW they are created or observed.
How fast do electrons travel when moving as an electrical current through copper wire?
The actual velocity of electrons through a conductor is
measured as an average speed called drift velocity. This is because
individual electrons do not traverse straight
line paths in conductors, instead they move in a random zig-zag motion, changing
directions as they collide with atoms in the conductor. Thus, the
actual speed of the electrons through the conductor is very
small in the direction of current.
For example, the drift speed through a copper wire of cross-sectional area 3.00 x 10-6 m2, with a current of 10 A will be approximately 2.5 x 10-4 m/s or about a quarter of a milimeter per second.
For example, the drift speed through a copper wire of cross-sectional area 3.00 x 10-6 m2, with a current of 10 A will be approximately 2.5 x 10-4 m/s or about a quarter of a milimeter per second.
What is Plasma?
A plasma (or, more properly, an electromagnetic plasma) is a phase of matter that has enough energy for the electrons to separated from the nucleus. It consists of independently moving electrons and nuclei, and thus has some rather interesting properties, such as very good magnetic shielding. It can be found in places such as the center of the sun, and also, in small quantities, surrounding a lightening bolt.
Many people consider solid, liquid, gas and plasma to be the only four phases of matter. This is not true, as there exist many others, but they are generally more exotic with names like hadron gas or Bose-Einstein Condensate.
How did atom obtain its name?
The word is derived from the Greek word "atomos", meaning indivisible. The concept of the atom originated round 440 BC. In Greek, the prefix "a" means "not" and the word
"tomos" means cut. Word "atom" therefore comes from "atomos", a Greek
word meaning uncuttable.
In 1803, John Dalton formulated the "atomic theory" of matter based on experiments that quantified the weights of elements formed when compounds were broken down. Based on experimental evidence, Dalton proposed that atoms really do exist as fundamental units of all elements.
Twentieth century physics was able to probe atoms and prove that they are not, in fact, indivisible. But the name stuck, and still has meaning in that atoms are the smallest, indivisible part of any element. If you do divide them into smaller pieces of protons, neutrons and electrons, you no longer have the original element.
In 1803, John Dalton formulated the "atomic theory" of matter based on experiments that quantified the weights of elements formed when compounds were broken down. Based on experimental evidence, Dalton proposed that atoms really do exist as fundamental units of all elements.
Twentieth century physics was able to probe atoms and prove that they are not, in fact, indivisible. But the name stuck, and still has meaning in that atoms are the smallest, indivisible part of any element. If you do divide them into smaller pieces of protons, neutrons and electrons, you no longer have the original element.
What is Dry Ice?
Dry ice is nothing but solidified Carbon Dioxide (CO2). When Carbondioxide is cooled to a very low temperature it transforms into solid. The temperature is about -78 deg centigrade.
Carbon Dioxide is an interesting material because, at normal atmospheric pressures, it has no liquid state. It can only obtain a liquid state under very high pressure in a containment vessel.
So, when you have a frozen chunk of carbon dioxide out in the open where you can see it, it will transform directly from its solid state to a gas state with no intermediate liquid state. This process is known as 'sublimation'.
Dry ice freeze water vapor in the air near it producing visible vapor all by itself, however adding water will also add substantial heat which will cause the solid CO2 to sublimate at a greatly accelerated rate thus producing much more visible vapor.
Carbon Dioxide is an interesting material because, at normal atmospheric pressures, it has no liquid state. It can only obtain a liquid state under very high pressure in a containment vessel.
So, when you have a frozen chunk of carbon dioxide out in the open where you can see it, it will transform directly from its solid state to a gas state with no intermediate liquid state. This process is known as 'sublimation'.
Dry ice freeze water vapor in the air near it producing visible vapor all by itself, however adding water will also add substantial heat which will cause the solid CO2 to sublimate at a greatly accelerated rate thus producing much more visible vapor.
What is Heavy water?
Normal water is made of two Hydrogen atoms and one Oxygen atom. Hydrogen atom and Oxygen atoms are covalently bonded
together. Normal water is designated by H2O.
Heavy water also has same molecular structure but Hydrogen atoms are replaced by isotopes of Hydrogen called 'Deuterium'. Standard hydrogen has one Proton in its nucleus (Relative Molecular Mass = 1), Deuterium has one Proton and one Neutron in it nucleus, (Relative Molecular Mass = 2). Hence it is 'heavier' than normal hydrogen. This leads to the water being heavier.
Heavy water also has same molecular structure but Hydrogen atoms are replaced by isotopes of Hydrogen called 'Deuterium'. Standard hydrogen has one Proton in its nucleus (Relative Molecular Mass = 1), Deuterium has one Proton and one Neutron in it nucleus, (Relative Molecular Mass = 2). Hence it is 'heavier' than normal hydrogen. This leads to the water being heavier.
What is Boyles Law?
Boyle's Law is a statement of the relationship
between the pressure and volume of gasses. Specifically it states that
under isothermic conditions, i.e. when temperature remains constant, the product of the pressure and volume
remains constant, or
P1 x V1 = P2 x V2
where P1 is the pressure before some change, V1 is the volume before the change, P2 and V2 are the new values after the change.What are the differences between jet airplanes and rockets?
Newton's third law of motion holds good for motion of both jet air planes and rocket engines. They move by
expelling hot gases opposite to the direction of desired acceleration. The momentum imparted to the gases is exactly
opposite to the momentum imparted to the vehicle.
The biggest difference between a jet engine and a rocket lies in their propulsion systems.
A jet engine works like this: It sucks in air from the front of the engine. This air is burned with the fuel within the engine. The resulting large mass of gas is ejected towards the rear at high velocity, which both propels the airplane forward, and gets more air sucked into the engine. In normal flight, the engines are used to propel the airplane forward. The actual 'uplift' is gained through the wings using the strong flow of the wind.
A rocket, in contrast, carries both fuel (which may be solid or liquid) and oxygen. Therefore it does not suck in air from the front. All it does is burn the fuel with the oxygen, and eject it at very high velocities backward. This momentum is used to both lift and propel the rocket. There are no wings for uplift. Any wings are for steering purposes.
In a nut shell, rocket carries its own supply of oxygen for combustion. A jet engine requires oxygen from the atmosphere for combustion, and so cannot operate in the vacuum of space.
The biggest difference between a jet engine and a rocket lies in their propulsion systems.
A jet engine works like this: It sucks in air from the front of the engine. This air is burned with the fuel within the engine. The resulting large mass of gas is ejected towards the rear at high velocity, which both propels the airplane forward, and gets more air sucked into the engine. In normal flight, the engines are used to propel the airplane forward. The actual 'uplift' is gained through the wings using the strong flow of the wind.
A rocket, in contrast, carries both fuel (which may be solid or liquid) and oxygen. Therefore it does not suck in air from the front. All it does is burn the fuel with the oxygen, and eject it at very high velocities backward. This momentum is used to both lift and propel the rocket. There are no wings for uplift. Any wings are for steering purposes.
In a nut shell, rocket carries its own supply of oxygen for combustion. A jet engine requires oxygen from the atmosphere for combustion, and so cannot operate in the vacuum of space.
How does ice form on a window pane in winter?
Its is related to "relative humidity", which is a
measure of the amount of actual water vapor in the air compared to the
maximum amount of water vapor the air can
hold at a particular temperature. Warmer air can support more water vapor than cold air. As warm
air comes in contact
with a cold window pane, it's temperature is lowered and the water vapor
that it can no
longer hold condenses. If the temperature of the pane is below 0°C
(32°F). that water
freezes to become ice on the window pane.
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